The Western Roman Empire fell in the 5th century, but the Eastern Roman Empire lasted until the 15th. That’s a whole millennium apart! So what on earth happened to those Greek-speaking, Jesus-loving descendants of the Romans?
Table of Contents
Introduction to the Rum Heritage
To walk through Istanbul’s Fener district is to feel the ghost of a civilization breathing down your neck. There, the Phanar Greek Orthodox College—the “Red School”—stands like a crimson fortress, its Byzantine–Ottoman architecture a silent testament to a people who defied categorization. They were not merely Greeks, nor simply Romans, nor entirely Ottoman. They were the Rum, and their story is the submerged history of Anatolia itself.
Often flattened into the simple label of “Greeks” in Western literature, the Rum identity represents a deeper, more complex continuity. It captures a Roman, Greek-speaking, Orthodox tradition rooted in the very soil of Anatolia and the stones of Constantinople, transcending the artificial borders of modern nation-states. They are the living remnant of a world where identities were layered, not singular.
The Rum (Greek Orthodox) community in Turkey has all but disappeared. The number of those under eighty who have not assimilated has dwindled to roughly a thousand. Yet even as a tiny minority, there endures a traditional, institution-anchored network—fortified by two millennia of experience—and a resilient ecclesiastical system.
Who Were the "Rum"? The Name That Tells a Story
In modern Turkey, the word Rum refers to the indigenous Greek Orthodox communities whose roots predate the Ottoman conquest. The term itself is a linguistic artifact, derived from Rhomaioi—”Romans.” This was not an affectation; it was a statement of political and cultural reality. The Byzantine Greeks saw themselves as the direct heirs of the Eastern Roman Empire. These were the people who, for centuries, maintained the Greek language and Eastern Orthodox faith under successive empires.
From the cosmopolitan neighbourhoods of Istanbul to the remote villages of the Pontic Mountains, the Rum were the keepers of a unique cultural tapestry. They were the descendants of Anatolia’s pre-Turkic inhabitants: the Greeks of Constantinople, the Pontians of the Black Sea, the Cappadocians of the central plateau. They were a living bridge to the Byzantine world, and their dramatic decline in the 20th century has left a void in Anatolia’s soul, visible only to those who know where to look.
Rum People in Western Literature
Western literature rarely treats “Rum” as a standalone ethnic or cultural identity. Instead, it usually translates or substitutes it with more familiar labels like “Greek” or “Greek Orthodox.” The term Rum—historically used in the Ottoman Empire to refer to Eastern Roman or Greek Orthodox Christians—is mostly explained in footnotes rather than adopted directly.
Common Western Terminology
“Greeks” / “Ottoman Greeks” – The Rum are typically identified as Ottoman Greeks, Anatolian Greeks, or Asia Minor Greeks, depending on geography.
“Greek Orthodox” – In religious or administrative contexts, Western scholars often refer to the Greek Orthodox millet or Orthodox Christians of the Ottoman Empire, translating Rum millet into Greek Orthodox community.
Cyprus Context – Western texts use Greek Cypriots vs Turkish Cypriots, while Rum is used mainly in Turkish-language sources (e.g., Kıbrıslı Rumlar).
When “Rum” Appears in Western Usage
The term Rum is used selectively, mainly in:
Byzantine studies (to denote Rhomaioi or Eastern Romans)
Ottoman legal and religious studies (in reference to the Rum millet)
Modern human rights and minority discourse (e.g., Rum Orthodox minorities in Turkey, or the Patriarchate of Constantinople)
Linguistic studies (particularly regarding the Romeyka dialect of Pontic Greeks)
Key Insight
Western scholarship tends to subsume the Rum identity under broader “Greek” or “Orthodox” categories, emphasizing national or religious aspects rather than the historical Roman-Ottoman continuity the term Rum embodies.
History of Romaika language
This is one of the most fascinating and misunderstood linguistic stories in the Eastern Mediterranean. Romaika was not a dialect of Greek — it was Greek, the living continuation of Koine, spoken by those who called themselves Romans
Let’s dive deep into the history of Romaika (Ρωμαίικα), the language of the Romans (Ῥωμαῖοι), i.e. the Byzantine Greeks and their descendants — known as Rum in Ottoman usage.
Origins: From Koine to Romaika
Romaika (Ρωμαίικα) literally means “Roman [language]” — the language of the Romans of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.
It evolved directly from Koine Greek (ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος), the common dialect that spread after Alexander the Great (4th c. BCE).
By the 1st century CE, Koine was the lingua franca of the Eastern Mediterranean — used in administration, trade, and the early Christian church (the New Testament was written in Koine).
Over the centuries, the spoken language naturally evolved: sound changes, simplification of grammar, and vocabulary borrowing from Latin and local languages.
By around the 9th–10th centuries CE, the spoken language had become distinct from the classical written form — this is what we can start calling Medieval Greek or Romaika.
The Byzantine Period: Romaika as the Language of the Romans
In the Byzantine Empire, people didn’t call themselves “Greeks” (Hellenes), which had pagan connotations — they were Romans (Ῥωμαῖοι), and their language was the Roman (Romaic) tongue.
The official state language shifted gradually from Latin to Greek between the 6th–8th centuries.
The spoken language of the empire’s people was the evolving Romaic, distinct from the highly stylized Atticizing Greek used by scholars and clergy.
Texts like the Chronicle of Morea (14th c.) or Digenis Akritas show early vernacular Romaika — simpler grammar, many dialectal forms, and a lively, almost modern rhythm.
Thus, Romaika was not a dialect of Greek — it was Greek, the living continuation of Koine, spoken by those who called themselves Romans.
Ottoman Era: Romaika Across the “Rum Millet”
After the fall of Constantinople (1453), Romaika continued as the language of the Rum millet, the Orthodox Christian community of the Ottoman Empire.
However, regional and social variation exploded:
| Region | Language Situation |
|---|---|
| Constantinople & Smyrna | Romaika remained vibrant, used in trade, church, and literature. |
| Aegean & Pontus | Local dialects of Romaika persisted, rich in archaisms (e.g. Pontic Greek retains ancient features like infinitives). |
| Cappadocia & Central Anatolia | Shift toward Turkish-speaking Orthodox (Karamanlides), though they still identified as Rum. Turkish was written in Greek script (Karamanlidika). |
| Cyprus & Crete | Romaika blended with local idioms and Western influences (Venetian, Italian). |
By the 18th–19th centuries, Romaika thus referred broadly to the spoken vernaculars of the Orthodox world — from Istanbul to the Black Sea — in contrast to Katharevousa, the later “purified” Greek of the nationalist period.
Romaika vs. Katharevousa: The Great Language Split
When the modern Greek state was founded in the 19th century (1830s), a fierce debate arose:
Should the national language be the spoken Romaika (the people’s tongue)?
Or a “purified” version closer to classical Greek (Katharevousa)?
The state chose Katharevousa for administration, seeing Romaika as “vulgar.”
But the people continued to speak Romaika, leading to a diglossia (two-language system) for more than a century.
Only in the 1970s did Demotic Greek — the direct descendant of Romaika — become the official language of Greece.
Romaika Today: Living Echoes
Though the term Romaika is rarely used officially today, it survives in memory, dialect, and identity:
In Istanbul, the remaining Rum community still refers to their language as Romaika — not “Greek.” It’s estimated that fewer than 1,000 members of this community are under the age of 80, though the total Rum population in the city — including the elderly — numbers in the few thousands.
In Pontus (Black Sea region), Pontic Romaika preserves remarkable archaisms: infinitives, ancient vocabulary, and even traces of Ionian phonology.
In Cyprus, the local dialect retains medieval features — a living echo of Romaika spoken in Byzantium.
In short, Romaika never “died.” It became Modern Greek, though the name changed when the people ceased to call themselves Romans.
A Linguistic Continuum, Not a Rupture
To summarize the evolution:
| Period | Name / Self-Identification | Linguistic Stage | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hellenistic (300 BCE – 300 CE) | Koine | Common Greek of the Eastern Mediterranean | Language of the New Testament |
| Byzantine (300 – 1453 CE) | Romaika / Glossa Romaion | Medieval Greek | Living speech of the Byzantine “Romans” |
| Ottoman (1453 – 1800s) | Romaika | Vernacular Greek of the Rum millet | Diverse dialects, often bilingualism with Turkish |
| Modern (1800s – today) | Demotic Greek / “Modern Greek” | Continuation of Romaika | Officialized in Greece in 1976 |
The Deep Anatolian Layer: Beyond Greek Colonists
To understand the Rum, one must look beyond the Aegean coast and into the Bronze Age. Long before the Ottomans or Seljuks, and indeed before Greek colonists built their famed cities at Ephesus and Miletus, Anatolia was home to sophisticated indigenous civilizations. Among them were the Luwians, a people whose history is etched into the rocky landscapes of Lycia and Lydia.
When early Hellenes arrived, they did not find an empty land. They encountered the Luwians, Hittites, and other ancient peoples who had thrived here for millennia. The process of Hellenization, supercharged by Alexander the Great’s conquests in the 4th century BC, was not a simple case of Greek culture being imposed. It was a profound cultural fusion. Native Anatolian populations—Lycians, Lydians, Carians—gradually adopted the Greek language and integrated into the Hellenistic world, but they brought their own ancient traditions with them.
The Rum, therefore, are not purely the descendants of Greek colonists. They are also the heirs of the countless Anatolian tribes and civilizations who, over centuries, became Hellenic. Their lineage is a blended one, a palimpsest where Luwian stones lie beneath Byzantine churches. By the early Byzantine era, this fusion was complete; Anatolia was a predominantly Greek-speaking, Christian land, and its people called themselves Rhomaioi.
The Ottoman Chapter: The Rum Millet
The Ottoman conquest did not erase the Rum; it codified them. The Rum Millet system granted the Orthodox community a degree of autonomy under the leadership of the Ecumenical Patriarch in Constantinople. This religiously defined identity allowed the Rum to persist as a distinct entity within the empire.
The heart of this community beat strongest in Istanbul’s Fener district. The Phanar College, founded in 1454, became its intellectual nucleus. Its imposing red-brick building, a landmark on the city’s skyline, produced generations of physicians, diplomats, and scholars. That it still operates today, with a handful of students, is a powerful symbol of resilience. Its continued existence, against all odds, whispers that the Rum have not yet disappeared.
15th Century – Post-Conquest Repopulation
Following the 1453 conquest, the Ottomans worked to restore the city’s population and infrastructure by drawing diverse communities into the capital.
Muslims made up ~58% of the population, mainly resettled from Anatolia and the Balkans.
Greeks (Rum), comprising ~23%, were relocated to maintain the city’s Byzantine heritage and economic stability.
Armenians (~5%) and Jews (~10%) were brought in to contribute their skills in crafts, trade, and finance.
Ethnic groups settled in distinct quarters: Greeks in Fener, Armenians in Kumkapı and Samatya, Jews in Galata and Balat.
The millet system allowed each group autonomy under their own religious leadership.
16th Century – Imperial Capital and Urban Boom
As the empire reached its height, Istanbul became one of the largest and most diverse cities in the world, fueled by migration and economic opportunity.
Population surpassed 400,000; Muslims remained the majority (~55–60%).
Greeks continued to be the most prominent minority, concentrated in the Fener district.
The arrival of Sephardic Jews after 1492 swelled the Jewish community and reshaped Jewish culture in Istanbul.
Armenians grew in numbers and established a strong presence in construction, goldsmithing, and trade.
Each community deepened its institutional presence, with schools, churches, synagogues, and hospitals flourishing.
17th Century – Maturing Pluralism
The city’s communities matured into entrenched urban networks, with non-Muslim minorities playing critical roles in the empire’s administration and economy.
Istanbul’s population stabilized around 500,000+, with non-Muslims making up roughly 40–45%.
Greeks remained influential in commerce and state affairs, particularly through Phanariot families.
Armenians expanded as architects, bankers, and imperial artisans.
Jews maintained strong merchant guilds and professional networks in neighborhoods like Balat and Hasköy.
Ethnic quarters became increasingly defined, but intercommunal trade and collaboration were common.
18th Century – Stability and Elite Consolidation
The city’s communities matured into entrenched urban networks, with non-Muslim minorities playing critical roles in the empire’s administration and economy.
Istanbul’s population stabilized around 500,000+, with non-Muslims making up roughly 40–45%.
Greeks remained influential in commerce and state affairs, particularly through Phanariot families.
Armenians expanded as architects, bankers, and imperial artisans.
Jews maintained strong merchant guilds and professional networks in neighborhoods like Balat and Hasköy.
Ethnic quarters became increasingly defined, but intercommunal trade and collaboration were common.
19th Century – Cosmopolitan Peak
The Tanzimat reforms and economic modernization spurred rapid growth, turning Istanbul into a global, multiethnic metropolis.
The population rose from ~426,000 in 1794 to nearly 1.2 million by 1900.
Muslims accounted for ~55–60%, while Greeks (~25%), Armenians (~15%), and Jews (~5%) formed a strong minority bloc.
Greeks led in shipping, commerce, and education; Armenians in finance, publishing, and architecture.
Jews expanded into medicine, printing, and commerce, especially in cosmopolitan districts like Pera.
The Tanzimat reforms granted non-Muslims new rights, accelerating social mobility and urban integration.
Early 20th Century – Collapse of Diversity
Wars, nationalism, and population transfers shattered the centuries-old coexistence, transforming Istanbul into a largely mono-ethnic capital.
In 1919, the population was ~1.17 million: 38% Muslim Turks, 31% Greeks, 17% Armenians, 4% Jews.
The Armenian Genocide and ensuing deportations devastated the Armenian presence.
The Greek community began to emigrate en masse following the Greco-Turkish War and 1923 population exchange.
Jewish numbers remained relatively stable but diminished over the coming decades.
By the late 1920s, Muslims made up over 80% of the city’s population, marking the end of its multicultural Ottoman character.
The Unraveling: Exodus and the Echoes of Romeyka
The 20th century was a catastrophe for the Rum. The population exchange of 1923, which exempted only the Greeks of Istanbul, saw over a million people forcibly relocated. This was followed by the crippling Wealth Tax of 1942, the state-sponsored pogrom of 1955, and expulsions in 1964. Istanbul’s Rum community, once numbering over 100,000, collapsed to just a few thousand.
Eleni was shocked to see the first page of the newspaper that morning, exactly 57 years ago today: “Some of the rights of the Greeks in Turkey have been canceled.”[1] She looked around and only saw concerned faces. Tatavla, the then almost exclusively Rum Polites neighborhood, was shaking with the possibility of their worst fears coming true: being forced to leave Istanbul, their City.
Yet, in the most unexpected of places, their world endures. In the mountains near Trabzon, a linguistic miracle persists. A dialect of Greek known as Romeyka is still spoken by Muslim villagers. These are the descendants of Rum who converted to Islam centuries ago and thus remained after the population exchange. Their language, a living fossil preserving ancient Greek forms, is not written or taught in schools. It survives in the homes of the elderly, a final, fading echo of the Rum’s Anatolian journey.
A Living Testament
The story of the Rum is not one of pure survival, but of profound transformation. They are a people forged from the fusion of Greek, Roman, Luwian, and Ottoman worlds. To seek them out is to learn to read the deeper layers of Anatolian history—to see the Luwian stone in a Lycian tomb, the Byzantine capital in a Seljuk mosque, and to hear the ghost of Romeyka in the wind over the Pontic mountains.
They are a reminder that identity is rarely simple, and that the most enduring histories are those written not in monuments, but in the fragile, tenacious threads of language, faith, and memory.
Guided Istanbul Tour about The Rum
This full-day itinerary expands beyond Fener to explore the profound legacy of the Rum people across the Bosphorus, from the historic peninsula to the vibrant Asian shore. We’ll trace their journey from the Orthodox heartland to cosmopolitan centers of trade and culture.
- Theme: A journey through the spiritual, commercial, and modern layers of Rum heritage.
- Pace: A full, walking-intensive day. Comfortable shoes are essential.
- Transport: We will use the tram, funicular, and ferry to connect the neighborhoods.
The itinerary
Morning (Fener & Balat):
9:00 AM: Start at the Ecumenical Patriarchate and Church of St. George in Fener.
10:00 AM: See the iconic Phanar Greek Orthodox College (The Red School).
10:45 AM: Visit the historic Church of St. Mary of the Mongols.
11:30 AM: Explore the colorful streets of Balat.
Midday (Transit & Lunch):
1:00 PM: Lunch in Balat or Karaköy.
2:00 PM: Take the Tünel funicular from Karaköy up to Beyoğlu.
Afternoon (Beyoğlu & Karaköy):
3:00 PM: Walk down İstiklal Avenue, noting old Greek schools and institutions.
3:45 PM: Visit the grand Aya Triada Church.
4:30 PM: Descend to Karaköy to see the port area.
Evening (Kadıköy):
5:30 PM: Take a ferry from Karaköy to Kadıköy.
6:00 PM: Explore the vibrant market streets.
7:00 PM: Dinner at a traditional meyhane or modern restaurant.
8:00 PM: Return ferry to European side.
The Detailed Itinerary
Morning (9:00 AM – 1:00 PM): The Spiritual & Scholarly Heart – Fener & Balat
Our journey begins in the historic districts along the Golden Horn, the ancient nucleus of the Rum community.
9:00 AM – Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople: Start your day at the spiritual center of the Orthodox world. Enter the courtyard of the Patriarchate in Fener and visit the Church of St. George. Inside, you will find sacred relics, including the Column of Flagellation, and a profound sense of history. This site has been the seat of the Patriarch since the 17th century and represents the enduring religious authority of the Rum.
10:00 AM – Phanar Greek Orthodox College (The Red School): A short walk uphill brings you face-to-face with the magnificent red-brick castle that dominates the Fener skyline. Gaze up at the Phanar Greek Orthodox College, an iconic symbol of Rum intellectual and cultural life. While it is an active school and public access is limited, its imposing exterior speaks volumes about the community’s prestige and resilience during the Ottoman era.
10:45 AM – Church of St. Mary of the Mongols: Continue to this unique and resilient church. It holds the distinction of being the only Byzantine church in Istanbul that was never converted into a mosque. Its continuous operation offers a powerful, tangible link to the city’s Byzantine past.
11:30 AM – Balat District Walk: Stroll through the colorful, winding streets of Balat. While this area was historically a mosaic of Jews, Armenians, and Rum, the atmosphere still evokes the old, multi-ethnic Constantinople. Observe the beautifully restored Ottoman houses and perhaps stop for a Turkish coffee at a local café before heading to our next destination.
Midday (1:00 PM – 3:00 PM): Lunch & Transit to Beyoğlu
1:00 PM – Lunch in Balat or Karaköy: Enjoy lunch at a traditional restaurant in Balat. Alternatively, take a short taxi or bus to the Karaköy port area, where you can find a wider variety of eateries, from fresh fish sandwiches at the docks to modern cafés.
2:00 PM – Transit to Beyoğlu: From Karaköy, take the historic Tünel funicular up to the start of İstiklal Avenue in Beyoğlu. This short ride replicates a journey made for centuries between the commercial port and the modern district above.
Afternoon (3:00 PM – 5:30 PM): Cosmopolitan Centers & Hidden Treasures – Beyoğlu & Karaköy
Beyoğlu (formerly Pera) was the vibrant, cosmopolitan heart of 19th and early 20th-century Constantinople, home to a wealthy and influential Rum community.
3:00 PM – İstiklal Avenue and the Greek Schools: Walk down the bustling İstiklal Avenue. Look for the impressive buildings of historic Rum institutions, such as the Zographeion Lyceum and the building that housed the influential newspaper Apoyevmatini. These structures are silent witnesses to the once-thriving Rum professional and intellectual class.
3:45 PM – Aya Triada Church (Holy Trinity): Located just off İstiklal Avenue, the Aya Triada Church is one of the largest Greek Orthodox churches in Istanbul. Its grand dome and neo-classical architecture reflect the prominence and confidence of the Rum community in the late Ottoman period. Step inside to appreciate its serene and spacious interior.
4:30 PM – Karaköy Port and Church of St. Gregory the Illuminator: Descend back to Karaköy on the historic Nostalgic Tram or by walking down the steep, charming streets. Near the bustling port, you can find the Armenian Church of St. Gregory the Illuminator, which serves as a reminder of the interconnectedness of the various Christian communities that thrived in this trading hub. The port area itself was a key point of arrival and departure for the Rum community throughout history.
Late Afternoon & Evening (5:30 PM – 8:00 PM): The Anatolian Shore – Kadıköy
To complete our journey, we cross the Bosphorus to Kadıköy, ancient Chalcedon, a center of Greek life for millennia.
5:30 PM – Ferry to Kadıköy: Take a public ferry from Karaköy to Kadıköy. This short trip offers stunning views of the Istanbul skyline and is a quintessential local experience. The ferry decks were once filled with Rum, Armenian, and Turkish commuters, and the route remains a vital link between the continents.
6:00 PM – Kadıköy Market and Surp Takavor Church: Disembark and immerse yourself in the lively, open-air market of Kadıköy. The streets here buzz with energy. While exploring, look for the Surp Takavor Armenian Church, a testament to the area’s continuous Christian presence. The market itself embodies the Anatolian spirit of trade and community that the Rum were an integral part of.
7:00 PM – Dinner in Kadıköy: Kadıköy is a culinary hotspot. Choose from a multitude of options, from traditional meyhanes (taverns) where you can imagine Rum merchants and intellectuals debating, to modern restaurants offering contemporary Turkish cuisine. It’s the perfect place to reflect on your day-long journey.
8:00 PM – Return Ferry: Take an evening ferry back to Karaköy or Eminönü, watching the city lights shimmer on the water—a beautiful end to a day exploring the deep, layered heritage of the Rum people.
