If you’re interested in exploring more about the sieges of Constantinople, check out the insightful video “Every Siege of Constantinople in Chronological Order” by the channel Specktrum.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Much like the legendary siege of Troy, the relentless attacks on Constantinople were driven by its unparalleled strategic significance, making it the most besieged city in human history.
The city’s location at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, straddling the Bosphorus Strait, made it a critical chokepoint for controlling maritime trade between the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and the Aegean Sea. This geopolitical advantage allowed it to dominate and protect vital trade routes, enhancing its economic prosperity.
Geology
Geologically, the Bosphorus Strait is a relatively new phenomenon, formed around 7,500 years ago, which underscores the recent human ability to fully exploit this optimal location. Its formation created a vital maritime chokepoint, making Constantinople a hub of economic and strategic activity.
Obviously, the Golden Horn was the better site – so Chalcedon was the “city of the blind.”
And if you look at the map today, you do wonder: why would anybody choose Chalcedon if the Golden Horn was available, as it was? pic.twitter.com/bP91MgB24t
— David Frum (@davidfrum) July 21, 2022
Early civilizations, such as those in Chalcedon and Chrysopolis, settled on the Asian side of the Bosphorus, benefiting from abundant sources of fresh water. In contrast, the old peninsula where Byzantion was founded was naturally defensible but lacked fresh water. It took Greek ingenuity to initially settle and develop Byzantion, and later Roman engineering prowess to transform the area into a large, thriving city. The Romans extended the water supply system with massive aqueducts and cisterns, turning the peninsula into a fortress capable of supporting a large population. This defensibility was a key reason Constantine the Great chose it as his new capital, having personally experienced the difficulty of capturing it.
Religion & Imperial Grandeur
Constantinople’s religious significance also played a crucial role in its history. In 330 AD, Roman Emperor Constantine made Christianity legal in the city, and within 50 years, it became the state religion of The Roman Empire. The construction of significant religious edifices, such as the Hagia Sophia, underscored the city’s status as a center of Christian faith.
The allure of Constantinople drew numerous empires and conquerors. The Persians sought it as a gateway to Europe, the Arabs coveted it as the most advanced city of their time, and the Russians longed for access to the warm waters of the Mediterranean. These ambitions were fueled by the city’s immense wealth and strategic position.
Constantinople‘s defenses were tested by many, including the Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Persians, Russians, Turks and numerous others, all recognizing its unmatched value. Each siege, whether repelled or successful, added to Constantinople‘s rich legacy.
The city’s impregnable defenses and control over crucial maritime routes made it not just a city but a symbol of enduring power and strategic ingenuity throughout history.
Every Siege in Chronological Order
12. 626 AD - Avars and Persians
Below is a chronological list of the sieges, with more details provided for significant ones.
1. 520 BC – Persian Siege
One of the earliest recorded sieges was by the Persian Empire, which successfully conquered Byzantium, the predecessor of Constantinople.
2. 478 BC – Greek Siege
During the Greco-Persian Wars, the Greeks besieged Byzantium to weaken Persian control.
3. 408 BC – Siege during the Peloponnesian War
The siege of Byzantium in 408 BC was an important event during the Peloponnesian War, reflecting the strategic imperatives of controlling key locations. Its capture by Sparta disrupted Athenian supply lines and showcased the broader struggle for dominance in the Greek world
4. 340-339 BC – Siege by Philip II of Macedon
Philip’s siege of Byzantium was significant due to its strategic location controlling access to the Black Sea. Despite his efforts and the use of both land and naval forces, the city managed to withstand the siege. The Byzantines were assisted by their allies, including Athens, which sent reinforcements to lift the siege.
5. 278-277 BC – Galatian Pressure on Byzantium
After ravaging Thrace, Celtic warbands (the Galatians) under Leonnorius and Lutarius appeared before Byzantium and forced the city to pay them tribute. Rather than a full-scale, protracted siege, it was a brutal shakedown at the gates. Soon after, King Nicomedes I of Bithynia hired them and ferried them across the straits into Anatolia, where they later gave their name to Galatia.
6. 251 BC – Seleucid Siege under Antiochus II
During the power struggles of the Hellenistic age, Seleucid king Antiochus II Theos sailed against Byzantium with a strong fleet, trying to break the city’s control over Black Sea trade tolls. Byzantium, backed by allies loyal to Ptolemy II of Egypt, managed to withstand this pressure, and the siege ultimately failed to take the city.
7. 73-72 BC – Third Mithridatic War
The siege of Byzantium during the Third Mithridatic War highlights the city’s strategic value in ancient geopolitical conflicts. Byzantium‘s involvement in this significant war reflects its role as a key player in the power dynamics of the Eastern Mediterranean, caught between the ambitions of Mithridates VI and the expanding might of Rome.
8. 193-196 AD – Septimius Severus’ Siege
During the brutal Roman civil wars that followed the assassination of Emperor Commodus, Byzantium chose the wrong side: it threw its support behind Pescennius Niger, a rival claimant to the throne against Septimius Severus. When Severus emerged victorious, he could not simply ignore this strategically placed city guarding the Bosphorus, so he laid siege to Byzantium in what became a famously long and stubborn blockade, lasting almost three years.
Protected by its strong walls and commanding position over sea routes, Byzantium held out far longer than most cities would have dared, forcing Severus to commit serious manpower and resources just to starve it into submission. When the city finally capitulated, Severus made an example of it: he stripped Byzantium of its civic privileges, demolished large sections of its fortifications, and subordinated it to nearby Perinthus, effectively downgrading it from a proud polis to a punished provincial town.
Yet the story doesn’t end in ruins. Recognizing the immense strategic value of the site at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, Severus and his successors gradually rebuilt and re-favored the city, adding new public buildings and laying foundations that Constantine would later transform into Constantinople, the “New Rome.”
9. 313 AD - Siege during the Tetrarchy
In the early 4th century, the Roman Empire was still experimenting with the Tetrarchy – a system of multiple emperors meant to bring stability, but which instead produced a new wave of civil wars. After the death of Galerius, tensions exploded between Licinius, who controlled the Balkans, and Maximinus Daia, ruler of the eastern provinces. Both men wanted to be the senior Augustus, and the key to their rivalry lay in controlling the strategic crossroads of the Bosphorus.
As Maximinus Daia marched west from Asia Minor, his campaign pulled Byzantium directly into the conflict. The city’s position overlooking the straits made it a natural stronghold: whoever held Byzantium could control the passage between Europe and Asia, the flow of grain and troops, and the naval routes connecting the Black Sea to the Aegean. In this context, Byzantium endured yet another siege, as the rival emperors tried to secure it as a base and choke point against one another.
Although this siege is far less famous than those of Septimius Severus or later medieval assaults, it marks an important moment in the city’s long military history. The fighting around Byzantium in 313 AD unfolded against the backdrop of a transforming empire – the same era that saw Constantine and Licinius issue the Edict of Milan, granting religious toleration to Christians. Within just a couple of decades, Constantine would recognize the full potential of this oft-besieged city and rebuild it as Constantinople, turning a once-contested fortress-town into the capital of the Roman world.
10. 324 AD - Constantine the Great vs. Licinius
Constantine the Great confronted his rival Licinius in a decisive conflict that reshaped The Roman Empire. After defeating Licinius, Constantine recognized the strategic and symbolic importance of Byzantium. He chose to make it the new capital of the Roman Empire, renaming it Constantinople. To solidify its status and protect it from future threats, Constantine embarked on an ambitious project to significantly fortify the city. These fortifications included the construction of formidable walls and other defensive structures, which would later prove crucial in defending the city from numerous sieges over the centuries.
This transformation marked the beginning of Constantinople‘s rise as a major political, cultural, and economic hub of the empire.
11. 378 AD - Gothic Siege
In 378 AD, the Eastern Roman Empire suffered one of the most catastrophic defeats in its history at the Battle of Adrianople, where Emperor Valens was killed and much of the eastern field army was destroyed by the Goths. Flushed with victory and sensing that the empire lay open before them, Gothic forces pushed toward the Bosphorus, aiming at the greatest prize of all: Constantinople.
The Goths advanced on the capital and effectively attempted a siege, hoping that fear and shock after Adrianople would force the city to surrender. But Constantinople was not an easy target. Even at this relatively early stage, its formidable Theodosian predecessors – strong land walls, sea defenses, and a large urban population – made it far tougher than the open battlefield Valens had chosen. The defenders were reinforced by units including Arab auxiliary cavalry, whose fierce counterattacks reportedly shocked the Goths and helped break their momentum outside the city.
Unable to breach the defenses or starve out such a large, well-provisioned metropolis, the Goths failed to take Constantinople and eventually moved away to raid other parts of the Balkans. The failed siege of 378 AD is a turning point: it shows that even when the empire’s field armies collapsed, the city itself remained virtually untouchable, a fortress that would shape the strategic thinking of emperors and invaders for the next thousand years.
12. 626 AD - Avar Siege
In 626 AD, Constantinople faced a formidable joint siege by the Avars and Persians. This unprecedented alliance aimed to conquer the strategically vital city. However, the defenders of Constantinople, under Emperor Heraclius, leveraged the city’s formidable fortifications and resourcefulness to repel the attackers. The Avars, attacking from the land, and the Persians, attacking from the sea, found themselves thwarted by the impregnable Theodosian Walls and the city’s defensive strategies, including the use of Greek Fire. The siege’s failure marked a significant triumph for Byzantium, reinforcing its reputation as an impregnable bastion and preserving its status as the heart of the Byzantine Empire
13. 654 AD - First Arab Siege
Constantinople experienced its first major assault from the Arab forces, marking the beginning of the protracted Arab-Byzantine wars. The Arabs, under the leadership of Caliph Uthman, sought to capture the strategically significant city to expand their empire. Despite their determined efforts, the Arab forces were unable to breach the city’s formidable defenses. The Byzantine use of strategic fortifications and naval prowess, including the deployment of the fearsome Greek Fire, played a crucial role in repelling the attackers. This initial siege set the stage for several more Arab attempts to seize Constantinople, all of which ultimately failed.
The Prophet Muhammad‘s Hadith about the conquest of Constantinople stated,
“Verily you shall conquer Constantinople. What a wonderful leader will her leader be, and what a wonderful army will that army be!”
This prophecy provided a significant religious and motivational impetus for Muslim armies, inspiring them to view the capture of the city as a divinely endorsed mission. Over the centuries, this belief spurred multiple attempts to take the city, culminating in its eventual conquest by Sultan Mehmed II in 1453.
14. 669 AD – Second Arab Siege
In 669 AD, the Arabs launched a second attempt to capture Constantinople. This siege was part of the ongoing Arab-Byzantine conflict, as the Umayyad Caliphate continued its efforts to extend its dominion. Despite their previous failure, the Arab forces were determined to overcome the city’s defenses. However, the resilience of Constantinople‘s fortifications, particularly the Theodosian Walls, and the Byzantines’ strategic military responses, including their naval defenses, once again thwarted the Arab siege. The failure of this second attempt reinforced the city’s reputation as an impregnable fortress and highlighted the challenges that lay ahead for any would-be conquerors
15. 674-678 AD – Umayyad Caliphate
Constantinople faced one of its most significant sieges at the hands of the Umayyad Caliphate. This prolonged assault marked a crucial episode in the Arab-Byzantine wars. The Umayyad forces, under Caliph Mu’awiya I, sought to capture the Byzantine capital and expand their empire. However, the defenders of Constantinople employed a secret weapon that would become legendary: Greek Fire. This incendiary weapon, capable of burning even on water, was used effectively by the Byzantine navy to destroy the Umayyad ships and repel the siege. The resilience of Constantinople’s fortifications and the strategic use of Greek Fire ensured that the city withstood the siege, dealing a significant blow to Umayyad ambitions. This event not only reinforced the city’s formidable reputation but also highlighted the ingenuity and defensive capabilities of the Byzantine Empire.
16. 715 AD – Umayyad Siege
Another siege by the Umayyad Caliphate that was ultimately unsuccessful.
17. 717-718 AD – Umayyad Caliphate
The siege of Constantinople from 717 to 718 AD by the Umayyad Caliphate, under Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik and later Caliph Umar II, is one of the most significant in Byzantine history. The Umayyads aimed to conquer the Byzantine capital, but the Byzantines effectively used Greek Fire, an incendiary weapon that burned on water, to repel the naval assault. Additionally, an exceptionally harsh winter severely weakened the Umayyad forces due to cold and starvation. The Byzantine Emperor Leo III‘s strategic defenses and alliances, particularly with the Bulgarian Khan Tervel, further contributed to the siege’s failure. The repulsion of the Umayyad forces halted their expansion into Europe and secured Constantinople as a bastion of Byzantine power
18. 813 AD – Siege by the Bulgars under Krum
Krum, the Bulgar Khan, besieged the city but was deterred by its defenses.
19. 821-822 AD – Thomas the Slav
The siege of Constantinople by Thomas the Slav in 821-822 AD was significant due to its scale and the internal threat it posed to the Byzantine Empire. Thomas the Slav, a Byzantine general, led a large rebellion against Emperor Michael II, securing support from various factions and alliances with the Arabs. The siege included both land and naval components, aiming to blockade the city. Despite the formidable challenge, Constantinople‘s defenses, the severe winter, and Michael II’s leadership led to the failure of the siege. Thomas was eventually captured and executed, reinforcing the emperor’s position and showcasing the city’s resilience against internal and external threats.
20. 860 AD – Rus’ Khaganate
The Rus’ launched a naval attack that was eventually repelled.
21. 907 AD – Kievan Rus’
The siege of 907 AD by the Kievan Rus’ was significant as it highlighted the growing power of the Rus’ and their capacity to challenge the Byzantine Empire. It set the stage for future interactions between the two civilizations, both conflictual and cooperative, influencing the political and economic landscape of Eastern Europe for centuries.
22. 913 AD – First Bulgarian Empire
Another attempt by the Bulgarians to take the city.
23. 921 AD – First Bulgarian Empire
In 921 AD, Simeon I launched another significant attempt to capture Constantinople. This effort was more intense than the previous one, as Simeon sought to capitalize on the internal strife and weaknesses within the Byzantine Empire. However, once again, the city’s defenses, including the impregnable Theodosian Walls, proved too strong. The siege ended in failure, but it underscored the persistent threat Simeon posed and his determination to challenge Byzantine authority.
24. 923 AD – First Bulgarian Empire
This siege was part of the broader context of Byzantine-Bulgarian conflicts under the leadership of Simeon I of Bulgaria. Although it did not result in the capture of the city, it showcased the ongoing threat posed by the Bulgarians to Byzantine control.
25. 941-944 AD – Kievan Rus’
A series of raids and sieges by the Kievan Rus’ under Igor of Kiev.
26. 1047 AD – Rebellion of Leo Tornikios
Leo Tornikios, a Byzantine noble, rebelled and besieged the city.
27. 1101 AD – First Crusade
The 1101 siege of Constantinople was part of the First Crusade, involving conflicts near the city as Crusaders passed through Byzantine territory. Emperor Alexios I Komnenos invited them to reclaim lost territories, but tensions arose due to their unruly behavior. These conflicts highlighted the complex relationship between the Byzantines and the Western European Crusaders, setting the stage for future tensions during subsequent Crusades
28. 1203 AD – Fourth Crusade
In 1203, the Fourth Crusade marked the first major attempt by Western European Crusaders to capture Constantinople. Initially intended to reclaim Jerusalem, the Crusaders were diverted to Constantinople largely due to the influence of the Venetians, who had their own political and financial motivations.
The Venetians, under Doge Enrico Dandolo, saw an opportunity to enhance their commercial dominance and recover debts owed by the Byzantines. Their significant role in providing the fleet and logistics for the Crusade made this diversion possible, ultimately leading to the siege and subsequent conflict within the city.
The crusaders aimed to support Alexios IV Angelos, who promised substantial rewards for his restoration to the throne. The siege led to significant internal conflict within the city, causing political instability and widespread destruction. Although the Crusaders successfully installed Alexios IV as co-emperor, the promised rewards were not forthcoming, leading to increasing tensions between the Crusaders and the Byzantines
Pope Innocent III strongly disapproved of the actions taken during the Fourth Crusade, which he had originally called to reclaim Jerusalem. When the Crusaders, under Venetian influence, attacked the Christian city of Zara in 1202, he excommunicated them.
Although he later absolved them to keep the Crusade focused on its goal, he was outraged when they sacked Constantinople in 1204, leading to widespread destruction. The aftermath of the Fourth Crusade led to a significant schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches and damaged the papacy’s reputation due to the perceived misdirection and betrayal of the Crusade’s original religious goals.
29. 1204 AD – Fourth Crusade
The infamous sack of Constantinople in 1204 was a catastrophic event that had far-reaching consequences for the Byzantine Empire and Christendom. After failing to receive the promised payment from Alexios IV Angelos, the Crusaders, facing mounting debts and tensions, decided to seize the city for themselves. On April 12, 1204, they launched a brutal assault, breaching the city’s defenses and plundering it over several days. The Crusaders looted churches, monasteries, and homes, causing immense destruction and loss of cultural heritage.
The sack led to the establishment of the Latin Empire of Constantinople, with Baldwin of Flanders crowned as the first Latin Emperor. The Byzantine Empire was fragmented into several successor states, including the Empire of Nicaea, the Despotate of Epirus, and the Empire of Trebizond. This fragmentation weakened Byzantine political power and significantly altered the balance of power in the region.
The Latin occupation lasted until 1261, when Byzantine forces recaptured the city. However, the damage inflicted during the sack had long-lasting effects on the Byzantine Empire, contributing to its eventual decline. The event deepened the schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches, fueling mutual distrust and animosity that would persist for centuries
30. 1235-1246 AD – Bulgarian Empire and the Empire of Nicaea
The period from 1235 to 1246 AD saw a prolonged conflict involving the Bulgarian Empire and the Empire of Nicaea, both of which attempted to capture Constantinople. This conflict was part of the broader power struggles following the Fourth Crusade and the establishment of the Latin Empire in Constantinople. The Bulgarians, led by Tsar Ivan Asen II, and the Nicaeans, under John III Doukas Vatatzes, formed a temporary alliance to dislodge the Latin occupiers and restore Byzantine control. Despite several attempts and considerable military engagements, neither side succeeded in capturing the city during this period. The efforts, however, weakened the Latin Empire and set the stage for the eventual recapture of Constantinople by the Nicaean forces in 1260.
31. 1248 AD – Internal Conflicts within the Latin Empire
The Latin Empire faced numerous internal and external threats, leading to sieges.
32. 1260 AD – Empire of Nicaea
The Empire of Nicaea, led by Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, successfully recaptured Constantinople from the Latin Empire. This significant event marked the decline of Latin rule, which had been in place since the Fourth Crusade in 1204. The recapture was achieved through the strategic efforts of General Alexios Strategopoulos, who learned that the main Latin garrison was away. With the help of local sympathizers, Nicaean soldiers managed to open the city gates at night, allowing them to enter with minimal resistance. This surprise attack led to the swift end of Latin control. In 1261, Michael VIII was crowned as emperor, restoring Byzantine dominance and revitalizing the empire
33. 1376 AD – Andronikos IV Palaiologos
Andronikos IV, with Genoese support, temporarily captured the city.
34. 1391 AD – Ottoman Empire
An initial siege by the Ottomans, which was part of their growing threat to the city.
35. 1394-1402 AD – Sultan Bayezid I
From 1394 to 1402, Sultan Bayezid I laid a prolonged siege to Constantinople, aiming to conquer the Byzantine capital and expand Ottoman dominance. Bayezid constructed the Anadolu Hisarı (Anatolian Fortress) on the Asian side of the Bosphorus to strengthen the blockade and control the strait. Despite the pressure, the city’s formidable defenses allowed it to withstand the siege. The siege ended when Bayezid had to redirect his forces to confront Timur, whose invasion of Anatolia culminated in the Battle of Ankara in 1402.
Bayezid’s defeat and capture by Timur weakened the Ottoman Empire and provided a temporary reprieve for Constantinople
36. 1411 AD – Musa Çelebi
An Ottoman prince who attempted to capture the city during the Ottoman Interregnum.
37. 1422 AD – Sultan Murad II
An unsuccessful siege by Murad II.
38. 1453 AD – Sultan Mehmed II
The fall of Constantinople was a turning point in world history, signaling the end of the Byzantine Empire and a significant shift in the balance of power. The city became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire, renamed Istanbul, and Mehmed II established it as a thriving center of Islamic culture and trade. This event also marked the end of the medieval period and the beginning of the Renaissance and early modern era in Europe.
Conclusion
From ancient Greek settlers and Roman emperors to Byzantine grandeur and Ottoman splendor, Constantinople has been a coveted jewel for countless civilizations.
The city, often dubbed “shelter for strangers,” has seen its walls withstand numerous sieges, embodying resilience and strategic brilliance.
It fell a total of four times: first to the Persians, then to Septimius Severus, followed by the tumultuous Fourth Crusade, and finally to Sultan Mehmed II in 1453. Each fall and subsequent resurgence added layers to its rich history.
Constantinople‘s storied past, marked by the perseverance of its diverse custodians, underscores its unparalleled historical and cultural significance, shaping its legacy as Istanbul, a city that remains a bridge between worlds.
Cool post. Added to my bookmarks.
Thanks Karl. You just get me! 🙂
🙂 No, but you really should have more engaged readers for doing such good work. You sure have given me a lot to read before I visit your wonderful country. I’ve heard such good things!
The most besieged city in human history! I love it. I get more excited every day about our upcoming visit this Spring. Thanks for a great article!
🙂 Yes, Hank. Looking forward to welcoming you our wonderful city! 🙂